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| − | ====General====
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| − | There are at present nearly 160 family members in [https://isfinder.biotoul.fr/ ISfinder] from nearly 80 bacterial and archaeal species but this represents only a fraction of those present in the public databases. The family was named<ref name=":0">Galas DJ, Chandler M. Bacterial Insertion Sequences. In: Berg DE, Howe MM, editors. Mob DNA. Washington, D.C.: American Society for Microbiology; 1989. p. 109–162. </ref> after the directly repeated insertion sequences in transposon Tn''6'' <ref>Berg DE, Davies J, Allet B, Rochaix JD. Transposition of R factor genes to bacteriophage lambda. ProcNatlAcadSciUSA. 1975;72:3628–3632. </ref> to standardize the various names that had been attributed to identical elements (e.g. IS''15'', IS''26'', IS''46'', IS''140,'' IS''160'', IS''176'') <ref>Labigne-Roussel A, Courvalin P. IS15, a new insertion sequence widely spread in R plasmids of gram- negative bacteria. MolGenGenet. 1983;189:102–112.
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| − | <br /></ref><ref>Trieu-Cuot P, Courvalin P. Nucleotide sequence of the transposable element IS15. Gene. 1984;30:113–120. </ref><ref><nowiki><pubmed>2994132</pubmed></nowiki></ref><ref name=":6"><nowiki><pubmed>PMC326375</pubmed></nowiki></ref><ref name=":1"><nowiki><pubmed>PMC326375</pubmed></nowiki></ref><ref name=":7"><nowiki><pubmed>3003524</pubmed></nowiki></ref><ref name=":2"><nowiki><pubmed>PMC215669</pubmed></nowiki></ref><ref>Nucken EJ, Henschke RB, Schmidt FR. Nucleotide-sequence of insertion element IS15 delta IV from plasmid pBP11. DNA Seq. 1990;1:85–88.
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| − | <br /></ref><ref><nowiki><pubmed>6304469</pubmed></nowiki></ref><ref><nowiki><pubmed>2999303</pubmed></nowiki></ref><ref name=":3">Colonna B, Bernardini M, Micheli G, Maimone F, Nicoletti M, Casalino M. The Salmonella wien virulence plasmid pZM3 carries Tn1935, a multiresistance transposon containing a composite IS1936- kanamycin resistance element. Plasmid. 1988;20:221–231.</ref><ref name=":4"><nowiki><pubmed>PMC162495</pubmed></nowiki></ref><ref><nowiki><pubmed>PMC305975</pubmed></nowiki></ref>, although more recently there has been some attempt to rename the family (see <ref><nowiki><pubmed>32871211</pubmed></nowiki></ref>), presumably because of accumulating experimental data from IS''26'' itself and the importance of this IS in accumulation and transmission of multiple anti biotic resistance, although this might potentially introduce confusion in the literature. IS''6'' family members have a simple organization ([[:File:IS6.1.png|Fig. IS6.1]]) and generate 8bp direct target repeats on insertion. This family is very homogenous with an average length of about 800 bp and highly conserved short, generally perfect, IRs ([[:File:IS6.2.png|Fig. IS6.2]]). Many are found as part of compound transposons (called pseudo-compound transposons <ref name=":0" /> described below) invariably as flanking ''direct'' ''repeats'' ([[:File:IS6.1.png|Fig. IS6.1]]) a consequence of their transposition mechanism <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref><nowiki><pubmed>PMC1196216</pubmed></nowiki></ref><ref><nowiki><pubmed>PMC3195058</pubmed></nowiki></ref><ref><nowiki><pubmed>PMC3587239</pubmed></nowiki></ref><ref><nowiki><pubmed>PMC219079</pubmed></nowiki></ref><ref name=":11"><nowiki><pubmed>PMC209129</pubmed></nowiki></ref><ref>Barberis-Maino L, Berger-Bachi B, Weber H, Beck WD, Kayser FH. IS431, a staphylococcal insertion sequence-like element related to IS26 from Proteus vulgaris. Gene. 1987;59:107–113. </ref><ref><nowiki><pubmed>PMC174916</pubmed></nowiki></ref><ref><nowiki><pubmed>3033719</pubmed></nowiki></ref><ref><nowiki><pubmed>2543009</pubmed></nowiki></ref><ref>Sundstrom L, Jansson C, Bremer K, Heikkila E, Olsson-Liljequist B, Skold O. A new dhfrVIII trimethoprim-resistance gene, flanked by IS26, whose product is remote from other dihydrofolate reductases in parsimony analysis. Gene. 1995;154:7–14. </ref><ref name=":8"><nowiki><pubmed>19074421</pubmed></nowiki></ref><ref><nowiki><pubmed>21393132</pubmed></nowiki></ref><ref><nowiki><pubmed>PMC284528</pubmed></nowiki></ref>.
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| − | [[File:IS6.1.png|border|center|thumb|600x600px|'''Fig. IS6.1.''' IS''6'' family organization. '''Top'''. Structure of IS''6'' family. Left (IRL) and right (IRR) terminal 14 bp IRs are shown as blue triangles. The 8 bp direct target repeats are shown as pink arrow heads. The transposase open reading frame is shown in purple. '''Bottom.''' A Pseudo-compound transposon (see text for explanation). IS''6'' family characteristics are as above.
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| − | Here, two directly repeated IS flank a passenger gene in green. ]]
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| − | [[File:Fig. IS6.2.png|alt=|border|center|thumb|600x600px|'''Fig. IS6.2.''' The general characteristics of the IS6 family. '''Top''': Distribution of IS length (base pairs). The number of examples used in the sample is shown above each column. '''Bottom''': Left (IRL) and right IRR inverted terminal repeats are shown in WebLogo format (Crooks et al., 2004).]]
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| − | ====Distribution and Phylogenetic Transposase Tree====
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| − | A phylogenetic tree based on the transposase amino acid sequence of the [https://isfinder.biotoul.fr/ ISfinder] collection ([[:File:IS6.3.png|Fig. IS6.3]]) shows that the IS''6'' family members fall into a number of well-defined clades. This slightly more extensive set of IS corresponds well to the results of another wide-ranging phylogenetic analysis <ref name=":5"><nowiki><pubmed>PMC6807381</pubmed></nowiki></ref>. These clades include one which groups all archaeal IS''6'' family members (Fig. IS6.3a) composed mainly of ''[[wikipedia:Euryarchaeota|Euryarchaeota]]'' (''[[wikipedia:Haloarchaea|Halobacteria]]'' ; Fig. IS6.3ai-iii). '''Group''' '''aiv''' includes both ''[[wikipedia:Euryarchaeota|Euryarchaeota]]'' (''[[wikipedia:Thermococcales|Thermococcales]]'' and ''[[wikipedia:Methanococcales|Methanococcales]]'') and ''[[wikipedia:Crenarchaeota|Crenarchaeota]]'' (''[[wikipedia:Sulfolobales|Sulfolobales]]''). Of the 10 clades containing bacterial IS: clade b includes examples from the [[wikipedia:Alphaproteobacteria|Alpha]]-, [[wikipedia:Betaproteobacteria|Beta]]-, and [[wikipedia:Gammaproteobacteria|Gamma-''proteobacteria'']], ''[[wikipedia:Firmicutes|Firmicutes]]'', ''[[wikipedia:Cyanobacteria|Cyanobacteria]]'', ''[[wikipedia:Acidobacteria|Acidobacteria]]'' and [[wikipedia:Bacteroidetes|Bacteroidetes]] ; '''clade''' '''c''' is more homogenous and is composed of ''[[wikipedia:Alphaproteobacteria|Alphaproteobacteria]]'' (''[[wikipedia:Rhizobiaceae|Rhizobiaceae]]'' and ''[[wikipedia:Methylobacteriaceae|Methylobacteriaceae]]''); '''clade d''' includes some [[wikipedia:Actinobacteria|Actinobacteria]], [[wikipedia:Alphaproteobacteria|Alpha]]-, [[wikipedia:Betaproteobacteria|Beta]]-, and ''[[wikipedia:Gammaproteobacteria|Gamma-proteobacteria]]'' ; while '''clades e, f, g''' and '''h''' are composed exclusively of [[wikipedia:Firmicutes|Firmicutes]] (almost exclusively ''[[wikipedia:Lactococcus|Lactococci]]'' in the case of '''clades e and f'''). '''Clades I''' and '''j''' are more mixed. Clearly, the [https://isfinder.biotoul.fr/ ISfinder] collection does not necessarily reflect the true IS''6'' family distribution and these grouping should be interpreted with care. For example, although many do not form part of the [https://isfinder.biotoul.fr/ ISfinder]database, IS''6'' family elements are abundant in archaea and cover almost all of the traditionally recognized archaeal lineages (methanogens, halophiles, thermoacidophiles, and hyperthermophiles <ref><nowiki><pubmed>PMC1847376</pubmed></nowiki></ref>.
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| − | [[File:IS6.3.png|border|center|thumb|860x860px|'''Fig. IS6.3.''' A dendrogram of IS''6'' family members. The figure shows 11 major clades. The surrounding colored circles and the insert indicate the clades identified by Harmer and Hall (2017). The insert shows the correspondence.]]
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| − | ====Terminal Inverted Repeats.====
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| − | The division into clades is also underlined to some extent by the '''IR''' sequences. As shown in Fig. IS6.2 ('''bottom'''), in spite of the wide range of bacterial and archaeal species in which family members are found, there is a surprising sequence conservation. In particular, the presence of a G dinucleotide at the IS tips and '''cTGTt''' and '''caaa''' internal motifs. Sequence motifs are more pronounced when each clade is considered separately (Fig. IS6.4).
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| − |
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| − | =====Clade b=====
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| − | (n=24; with [[wikipedia:Alphaproteobacteria|Alpha]]-, [[wikipedia:Betaproteobacteria|Beta]]-, and [[wikipedia:Gammaproteobacteria|Gamma-''proteobacteria'']], ''[[wikipedia:Firmicutes|Firmicutes]]'', ''[[wikipedia:Cyanobacteria|Cyanobacteria]]'', ''[[wikipedia:Acidobacteria|Acidobacteria]]'' and ''[[wikipedia:Bacteroidetes|Bacteroidetes]]'') maintains stronger traces of parts of these motifs (GG.. tcTGtt and CAaa).
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| − |
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| − | =====Clade c=====
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| − | (n= 14; ''[[wikipedia:Alphaproteobacteria|Alphaproteobacteria]]'': ''[[wikipedia:Rhizobiaceae|Rhizobiaceae]]'' and ''[[wikipedia:Methylobacteriaceae|Methylobacteriaceae]]'') shows considerable conservation of an extended motif (GGG... TGTCGCAAA) and some conservation further into both IRL and IRR, although these are different for each end.
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| − |
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| − | =====Clade d=====
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| − | (n=16; ''[[wikipedia:Actinobacteria|Actinobacteria]]'', ''[[wikipedia:Alphaproteobacteria|Alpha]]''-, ''[[wikipedia:Betaproteobacteria|Beta]]''-, and ''[[wikipedia:Gammaproteobacteria|Gamma-proteobacteria]]'') includes a well conserved GG..cTGTTGCAAA signature with little conservation further into each end.
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| − |
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| − | =====Clade e=====
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| − | (n=7) is composed entirely of IS from ''[[wikipedia:Lactococcus|Lactococcus]]'' and, as might be expected, exhibits fully conserved IR (GGTTCTGTTGCAAAGTTT) with significant conservation towards the IS interior, as would be expected in very closely related IS. However, some of the sequence conservation is present in both ends possibly indicating some functional role.
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| − | =====Clade f=====
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| − | (n = 8; ''[[wikipedia:Lactococcus|Lactococcus]]'' and a single ''[[wikipedia:Leuconostoc|Leuconostoc]]'') also exhibits a highly conserved ggTTCTGTTGCAAAGTTT signature at IRL (with only a partially conserved GG at the tip due to just 2 members) which is less conserved in IRR. Again, there is some internal conservation.
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| − | =====Clade g=====
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| − | (n = 8; composed of bacilli: ''[[wikipedia:Listeria|Lysteria]]'', ''[[wikipedia:Lactococcus|Lactococcus]]'', ''[[wikipedia:Enterococcus|Enterococcus]]'') also exhibits a similar signature (GGtTctgtTgcaAAgtTt) albeit less conserved. The left and has significant internal conservation.
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| − |
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| − | =====Clade h=====
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| − | (n = 11; largely ''[[wikipedia:Staphylococcus|Staphylococci]]'' with 2 ''[[wikipedia:Bacillus_thuringiensis|B. thuringiensis]]'') also exhibit the typical GGTTCTGTTGCAAAGTTt signature and some internal conservation in IRL.
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| − |
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| − | =====Clade i=====
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| − | (n = 1) is more heterogenous ([[wikipedia:Alphaproteobacteria|Alpha proteobacteria]]'': [[wikipedia:Methylobacterium|Methylobacterium]], [[wikipedia:Paracoccus|Paracoccus]], [[wikipedia:Roseovarius|Roseovarius]], [[wikipedia:Rhizobium|Rhizobium]], [[wikipedia:Bradyrhizobium|Bradyrhizobium]] ; [[wikipedia:Deinococcus–Thermus|Deinococci]]'' and ''[[wikipedia:Haloarchaea|Halobacteria]]''). It contains a poorly conserved IR sequence but does include a prominent gG dinucleotide tip and a poorly pronounced tgtcaagtt signature.
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| − |
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| − | =====Clade j=====
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| − | Finally, bacterial Clade j (n= 5) composed entirely of ''[[wikipedia:Firmicutes|Firmicutes]]'' (''[[wikipedia:Natranaerobius|Natranaerobius]]'', ''[[wikipedia:Clostridium|Clostridium]]'' and ''[[wikipedia:Thermoanaerobacter|Thermoanaerobacter]]'') exhibits a moderately well-defined internal signature TcTgTtAAgTt.
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| − | The archaeal-specific clades also generally exhibit well-defined consensus sequences.
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| − | =====Clade Ai=====
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| − | (n = 12) is composed uniquely of ''[[wikipedia:Haloarchaea|Halobacterial]]'' ''[[wikipedia:Euryarchaeota|Euryarchaeota]]'' with a ggtaGTGTTcagatAaG signature and significant internal conservation which is different for each end.
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| − |
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| − | =====Clade Aii=====
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| − | (n = 5), again, composed entirely of ''[[wikipedia:Haloarchaea|Halobacterial]]'' ''[[wikipedia:Euryarchaeota|Euryarchaeota]]'' (''[[wikipedia:Haloarcula|Haloarcula]], [[wikipedia:Halomicrobium|Halomicrobium]], [[wikipedia:Natronomonas|Natronomonas]], [[wikipedia:Natronobacterium|Natronobacterium]], [[wikipedia:Natrinema|Natrinema]]'') also has well conserved ends, ggtcgTGTTTaGTT, and significant internal conservation which is different for each end.
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| − | =====Clade Aiii=====
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| − | This is also the case for Clade Aiii, also composed of diverse [[wikipedia:Haloarchaea|''Halobacterial'']] ''species'' (''Halohasta, [[wikipedia:Haloferax|Haloferax]], [[wikipedia:Natrinema|Natrinema]], [[wikipedia:Natrialba|Natrialba]], [[wikipedia:Halogeometricum|Halogeometricum]], [[wikipedia:Natronomonas|Natronomonas]], [[wikipedia:Natronococcus|Natronococcus]],'' and ''[[wikipedia:Haloarcula|Haloarcula]]''): GgcACtGTCTAGtT.
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| − | =====Clade Aiv=====
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| − | However, Clade Aiv (n = 9) which includes both ''[[wikipedia:Euryarchaeota|Euryarchaeota]]'' and ''[[wikipedia:Crenarchaeota|Crenarchaeota]]'', has poor conservation although on further analysis, an alignment shows significant conservation in the ''[[wikipedia:Sulfolobus|Sulfolobus]]'' and in the ''[[wikipedia:Pyrococcus|Pyrococcus]]'' groups with good interior conservation also in the 3 ''[[wikipedia:Pyrococcus|Pyrococcal]]'' members. It is possible that the IS ends in the ''[[wikipedia:Sulfolobus|Sulfolobus]]'' members have not been accurately identified.
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| − | The answer to the recent question:
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| − | “'''An analysis of the IS''6''/IS''26'' family of insertion sequences: is it a single family''' '''?'''”<ref name=":5" /> is therefore “'''Probably, yes'''”.
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| − | ====Genomic Impact====
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| − | Activity resulting in horizontal dissemination is suggested, for example, by the observation that copies identical to ''[[wikipedia:Mycobacterium_fortuitum|Mycobacterium fortuitum]]'' IS''6100'' <ref name=":12"><nowiki><pubmed>2163027</pubmed></nowiki></ref>('''Clade d''') occur in other bacteria: as part of a plasmid-associated catabolic transposon carrying genes for nylon degradation in ''[[wikipedia:Arthrobacter|Arthrobacter sp.]]'' <ref><nowiki><pubmed>PMC205175</pubmed></nowiki></ref>, from the ''[[wikipedia:Pseudomonas_aeruginosa|Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]'' plasmid R1003 <ref><nowiki><pubmed>PMC196970</pubmed></nowiki></ref>, and within the ''[[wikipedia:Xanthomonas_campestris|Xanthomonas campestris]]'' transposon Tn''5393b'' <ref name=":13"><nowiki><pubmed>PMC167566</pubmed></nowiki></ref>. Similar copies have also been reported in ''[[wikipedia:Salmonella_enterica|Salmonella enterica]]'' (typhimurium) <ref><nowiki><pubmed>10930753</pubmed></nowiki></ref>, and on plasmid pACM1 from ''[[wikipedia:Klebsiella_oxytoca|Klebsiella oxytoca]]'' ([https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/AF107205.1/ AF107205]) <ref><nowiki><pubmed>25291385</pubmed></nowiki></ref>.
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| − | A single member, IS''Dsp3'', present in single copy in [[wikipedia:Dehalococcoides|''Dehalococcoides sp.'' BAV1]] carries a passenger gene annotated as [[wikipedia:Hypothetical_protein|hypothetical protein]].
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| − | IS''257'' <ref>Rouch D, Skurray R. IS257 from Staphylococcus aureus member of an insertion sequence superfamily Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Gene. 1989;76:195–205. </ref>('''Clade h''') (also known as IS''431'') has played an important role in sequestering a variety of antibiotic resistance genes in clinical isolates of [[wikipedia:Methicillin|methicillin]] resistant ''[[wikipedia:Staphylococcus_aureus|Staphylococcus aureus]]'' (MRSA) (e.g.<ref name=":14">Rouch DA, Messerotti LJ, Loo SL, Jackson CA, Skurray RA. Trimethoprim resistance transposon Tn4003 from Staphylococcus aureus encodes genes for a dihydrofolate reductase and thymidylate synthetase flanked by three copies of IS257. Mol Microbiol. 1989;3:161–175. </ref><ref>Stewart PR, Dubin DT, Chikramane SG, Inglis B, Matthews PR, Poston SM. IS257 and small plasmid insertions in the mec region of the chromosome of Staphylococcus aureus. Plasmid. 1994;31:12–20. </ref><ref name=":9"><nowiki><pubmed>PMC101884</pubmed></nowiki></ref><ref name=":10"><nowiki><pubmed>PMC284724</pubmed></nowiki></ref>. It provides an outward oriented promoter which drives expression of genes located proximal to the left end. Moreover, both left and right ends appear to carry a –35 promoter component which would permit formation of hybrid promoters on insertion next to a resident –10 element <ref name=":9" /><ref><nowiki><pubmed>PMC107441</pubmed></nowiki></ref>. Insertion of can result in activation of a neighboring gene using both a hybrid promoter and an indigenous promoter <ref name=":9" />. IS''257'' is also involved in expression of ''[https://www.wikigenes.org/e/gene/e/2716475.html tetA]'' <ref><nowiki><pubmed>7830550</pubmed></nowiki></ref> and ''[https://www.wikigenes.org/e/gene/e/2598376.html dfrA]'' <ref name=":10" /> in ''[[wikipedia:Staphylococcus_aureus|S. aureus]].''
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| − | IS''26'' <ref name=":6" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":7" /> ('''clade d''') is encountered with increasing frequency in plasmids of clinical importance where it is involved in expression of antibiotic resistance genes and plasmid rearrangements (see <ref name=":8" /><ref><nowiki><pubmed>PMC1913244</pubmed></nowiki></ref><ref><nowiki><pubmed>23330672</pubmed></nowiki></ref><ref><nowiki><pubmed>16870645</pubmed></nowiki></ref><ref><nowiki><pubmed>23169892</pubmed></nowiki></ref><ref><nowiki><pubmed>20093380</pubmed></nowiki></ref>). Its transposition mechanism contributes to its ability to assemble anti-bacterial resistance genes into clusters (e.g. <ref name=":15"><nowiki><pubmed>PMC4471558</pubmed></nowiki></ref>). It can also form hybrid promoters capable of driving different antibiotic resistance genes: ''[https://www.uniprot.org/uniprot/Q7WUG8 aphA7], bla<sub>S2A</sub>'' (''[[wikipedia:Klebsiella_pneumoniae|Klebsiella pneumoniae]]'' <ref name=":11" />), ''bla<sub>SHV-2a</sub>'' (''[[wikipedia:Pseudomonas_aeruginosa|Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]'' <ref><nowiki><pubmed>PMC89260</pubmed></nowiki></ref>) and [https://www.uniprot.org/uniprot/P14508 ''aphA''7] (''[[wikipedia:Pasteurella|Pasteurella piscicida]]'' <ref><nowiki><pubmed>27873653</pubmed></nowiki></ref>) as well as the wide spectrum [[wikipedia:Beta-lactam|beta-lactam]] resistance gene bla<sub>KPC</sub> ('''Table''' [[General Information/IS and Gene Expression|IS and Gene Expression]]).
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| − | The formation of hybrid promoters on insertion ('''Table''' [[General Information/IS and Gene Expression|IS and Gene Expression]]) is clearly a general property of members of the IS''6'' family <ref name=":11" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" /><ref><nowiki><pubmed>PMC2443897</pubmed></nowiki></ref><ref>Allmansberger R, Brau B, Piepersberg W. Genes for gentamicin-(3)-N-acetyl-transferases III and IV. II. Nucleotide sequences of three AAC(3)-III genes and evolutionary aspects. MolGenGenet. 1985;198:514–520. </ref>.
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| − | Another member, IS''6100'' <ref name=":12" /> ('''Clade d''')'','' often used as an aid in classifying mycobacterial isolates<ref><nowiki><pubmed>PMC268253</pubmed></nowiki></ref> <ref><nowiki><pubmed>PMC330226</pubmed></nowiki></ref><ref><nowiki><pubmed>PMC172007</pubmed></nowiki></ref> has been found to drive ''[https://www.wikigenes.org/e/gene/e/2716516.html strA] [https://www.wikigenes.org/e/gene/e/2716517.html strB]'' expression in [[wikipedia:Xanthomonas_campestris_pv._vesicatoria|''X. campestris'' pv. vesicatoria]], <ref name=":13" />.
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| − | This IS family is able to form transposons which resemble compound transposons with the flanking IS in direct repeat but, because of the particular transposition mechanism of IS''6'' family members (see below), were called pseudo-compound transposons <ref name=":0" />. These include Tn''610'' (flanked by IS''6100'' <ref name=":12" />), Tn''4003'' and others (flanked by IS''257'' <ref name=":14" />) and Tn''6023'' (flanked by IS''26'' <ref><nowiki><pubmed>21702681</pubmed></nowiki></ref>).
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| − | <br />
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| − | ====Clinical Importance of IS''26''.====
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| − | In view of the particular importance of IS''26'' in sequestering antibiotic resistance genes and generating arrays of these genes in clinically important conjugative plasmids and in the host chromosome (see <ref name=":8" /><ref name=":15" />), it is worthwhile devoting a separate section to the contribution of this IS to the clinical landscape. Recognition of its place as an important player has derived from the large number of sequences now available of multiple antibiotic resistance plasmids and chromosomal segments such as '''G'''enomic '''R'''esistance '''I'''slands ('''GRI'''). It is now no longer practical to provide a complete analysis of the literature. At present (19<sup>th</sup> November 2020) a PubMed search using IS''26'' as the search term yielded nearly 450 citations. The references in the following are not exhaustive but simply provide examples.<br />
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| − | =====Arrays=====
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| − | IS''6'' family members are often found in arrays (Fig. IS6.5 and Fig. IS6.6) in direct and inverted repeat in multiple drug resistant plasmids (e.g. ''S. typhimurium'' ��[27,60,61]�, ''Klebsiella quasipneumoniae'' ��[62]�, ''Acinetobacter baumannii'' ��[48,63]�, Proteus mirabilis ��[64]� and uncultured sewage bacteria ��[65]� among many others). These are often intercalated in or next to other transposable elements rather than neatly flanking ABR genes and can form units able to undergo tandem amplification.<br />
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| − | =====Amplification=====
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| − | Shropshire et al ��[66]�, studying clinical isolates of non-carbapenemase-producing Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacteria, non-CP-CRE, isolated from several patients with recurrent bacteraemia, observed an increase in carbapenem resistance partially due to IS''26''-mediated amplification of up to 10 fold of a cassette blaOXA-1 and blaCTX-M-1 which forms part of a larger chromosomal structure of IS''26'' arrays which they call TnMB1860 (Fig. IS6.6). It was unclear whether this cassette amplification was due to transposition activity or, as had been observed in similar, IS''1''-mediated, gene amplifications ��[67–72]�. Another example has been revealed by Hastak et al ��[73]� who analysed a multi resistant derivative of the clinically important, globally dispersed pathogenic, ''Escherichia coli'' ST131 subclade H30Rx, isolated from a number of bacteraemic patients and revealed that increased piperacillin/tazobactam resistance was due to IS''26''-mediated amplification of blaTEM-1B. A similar type of limited (tandem dimer) amplification of an IS''26''-flanked blaSHV-5-carrying cassette found in plasmids from a number of geographically diverse enteric species was identified in a nosocomial ''E. cloacae'' strain ��[74]�. A more extensive amplification (>10 fold) was observed with the same cassette located in a different plasmid in a well-characterised laboratory strain of ''Escherichia coli'' and occurred in a ''recA''-independent manner ��[46]� and even higher levels of tandem amplification (~65 fold) of the ''aphA1'' gene in the IS''26''-based Tn''6020'' were identified in ''[[wikipedia:Acinetobacter_baumannii|Acinetobacter baumannii]]'' ��[75]�.<br />
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| − | =====Cointegrating plasmids.=====
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| − | <br />
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| − | ====Organization====
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| − | ====Mechanism: the state of play====
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| − | ====Cointegrate formation====
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| − | <br />
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| − | ====Circular transposon molecules: translocatable units (TU)====
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| − | ====Targeted transposition.====
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| − | ====Acknowledgements====
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| − | We would like to thank [https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=0igAN8sAAAAJ&hl=en Susu He] ([https://www.nju.edu.cn/EN/ Nanjing University]) for stimulating discussions concerning the transposition models.
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| − | ==Bibliography==
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| − | <references />
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